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IV B.PHARM. – I SEMESTER
Course No. 411 – Pharmaceutical Chemistry – V (Medicinal II)
1. Physic-chemical properties of biological activity: Influence of partition coefficient, covalent bonding, hydrogen bonding, surface activity, redox potentials, chelation, enantiomerism and geometriacal isomerism on biological activity; 2. Factors affection absorption, transport, distribution and elimination of drugs, protein drugs; 4. Introduction to principles of chemotherapy, chemotherapeutic index, drug resistance, A study of the classification, mode of action, uses and synthesis of more important members in each of the following categories. 5. antiinfective agents: (a) ectoparasiticides: Lindane, pyrethrins, sulfurated compounds, benzyl benzoate; (b) Antiseptics and disinfectants: Alcohols and derivatives. Phenols and derivatives, oxidizing agents, cationic surfactants, dyes, mercury compounds, nitrofuran derivatives, halogenophores, mercurial compounds, phenolic compounds; 6. Sulphonamides: Historical background, chemistry, nomenclature, classification, mechanism of action, structure activity relations and synthesis of important members, long acting sulpha drugs; 7. Antimycobacterial agens: Antitubercular agents 8. Anthelmintics: Benzimidazoles, thazoles, phenols, piperazine and derivatives, quaternary ammonium compounds, vinyl pyrimidines; 9. Antimalarials: History of treatment, quinoline derivatives, pyrimidines, acridines, sulpha drugs, biguanides, mode of action and synthesis of representative members from each group, structure activity relatins; 10. Antiamoebic agents: Antibiotics, quinoline derivatives, haloactamides, ipecac alkaloids, 5-nitro imidazoles, organic arsenicals and miscellaneous agents. Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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11. Antifungal agents: Acids and derivatives, acridines, antibioties, imidazoles, nitrofurnas, pyrimidines, thiocarbamates, miscellaneous; 12. Antiviral agents: Adamantane amines and related compounds, purines, pyrimidines; 13. Cytostatic agents: Occurrence, terminology and treatment of neoplastic diseases, antimetabolites, alkylating agents, antibiotics, hormones, plant products: 14. Adrenergic drugs: Biosynthesis and metabolism of catecholamines, direct and Humidity control: Definition, methods of monitoring and drying gases- air conditioning, cooling towers- wet and dry bulb hygrometry, sample problems; Extraction: Principles of solid-liquid and liquid-liquid extraction, equipment, diffusion batteries-extraction of indirect sympathomimetics, mode of action and structure activity relations, adrenergic 15. Cholinergic agents and anticholinesterases: Structural features of acetylcholine, cholonergic agonists, antichlonesterases, irreversible inhibitors; 16. Diuretics: Osmotic agents, mercurials, phenoxyacetic acids, anthranilic acids, purines and related heterocycles, carbonic anthdrase inhibitors; 17. Antihyper- tensives: Ganglionic blocking agents, quaternary and nonquaternary amines, MAO Course No. 412 - Pharmaceutical Chemistry – V (Medicinal II) Practical
1. Preparation of synthetic drugs involving two or three steps such as benzocaine, barbituric acid, methaqualone, cinchophen, phenolphthalein. 2. Analysis of formulations containing drugs studied in theory such as Chloroquine phosphate, metronidazole, diethyl carbanazine, pentobarbitone, dapsone, Text Books :
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1. Wilson and Gisvold, Text Book of organic, Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry; 2. Bently and Drivers’s Text Book of Pharmaceutical Chemistry; 3. Remington’s Practice of Pharmaceutical Sciences. Reference Books:
1. Organic chemistry, Vol. I By I.L.Finar; 2. Essentials of Medicinal Chemistry by Karlkovas; 3. Medicinal Chemistry, Vol. I, II and III. By A. Burger: 4. Indian Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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Course No. 413 – Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry – II
General Pharmacognosy: Advantages and disadvantages of obtaining drugs from cultivated and wild plants. Variability of drug constituents due to exogenous and endogenous factors like altitude, temperature, rainfall, light, propagation by seeds, vegetative means, mutation, hybridisation; Deterioration of crude drugs during storage by insects, pests and enzymes. Factors influencing the storage of crude drugs; Methods of Evaluation of crude drugs: Identity, purity and quality of crude drugs by organoleptic, microscopic, physical, chemical and biological evaluation; Methods of adulteration, detection and identification of adulterants, types and significance of standards for crude drugs included in I.P. and B.P. Quantitative pharmacognosy. A detailed study of the following drugs, their classification, methods of preparation, commercial varieties, active, principles, their chemical nature, identification tests and uses; Roots and rhizomes: Male ferm, valerian, rhubarb, podophyllum, liquorice, turmeric, ginger, ipecac, rauwolfia, aconite and jalap; Unorganised drugs: Opium, aloes, kino, gambier, agar, alginates, gelatin. Resins, gums resins, oleresins-colophony, benzoin, shellac, myrrh, galbanum, asafetida, turpentine, balsam of Tolu, balsam of Peru and storax; Glands and glandular secretions – thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, pancreas and musk; Gums and saccharin substances: Acacia, tragacanth and honey. Humidity control: Definition, methods of monitoring and drying gases- air conditioning, cooling towers- wet and dry bulb hygrometry, sample problems; Extraction: Principles of solid-liquid and liquid-liquid extraction, equipment, diffusion batteries-extraction of products; Biogenesis, Pathways leading to formation of plants products. Historical development of plant tissue culture, types of cultures, nutritional requirements, growth Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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and their maintenance, applications of plant tissue culture in production of pharmaceutically important secondary metabolites. Recommended Books:
1. Atal, CK and Kapoor, B.M. Cultivation and Utilisation of Aromatic Plants; CSIR Publication; 2. Tyler, VC. Brady, LR and Robers JE. Pharmacognosy, 11th to 14th editions; 3. Wallis, T.E. Text Book of Pharmacognosy, 5th Edition, J & A. Churchill Limited, U.K.; 4. Kokate, CK. Purohit, AP. and Gokale, SB. Pharmacognosy; 5. Ross, MF. and Brain, KR. An Introduction to Phytopharmacy Pitman Medical- Kent; 6. Deinvert, J. and Bajaj, YPS. Applied and Fundamental Aspects of Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture, Berlin. Course No. 414 – Pharmacognosy & Phytochemistry – II Practical
List of experiments:
1.Identification of powdered crude drugs and their combinations with the help of organoleptic, microscopic and chemical tests; 2. Determination of leaf constants such as stomatal index, stomatal number, vein islet number and palisade ratio. 3. Thin layer chromatographic studies of extracts from crude drugs. Recommended Books:
1. Pharmacopoeia of India. 1985; 2. Practical Pharmacognosy, 3rd Edition, by Kokate, C.K.; 3. Practical Pharmacognosy by Lala, P.K., Lina, Culcutta, 1981. Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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Course No. 415 – Industrial Pharmacy & Cosmetic Technology
A study of the formulation, process and equipment used in the manufacture, evaluation, quality control and prediction of shelf-lives of the following dosage forms. A study of officaial (I.P.) and other important products in each category. 1. General formulations – factors involved; 2. Suspensions; 3. Emulsions; 1. General formulations – factors involved; 2. Suspensions; 3. Emulsions; 1. Parenterals; 2. Other sterile products-eye ointments, eye drops. 1. Sustained release products; 2. Microencapsulation and microcapsules; 3. Radiopharmaceuticals; 4. Aerosol preparations. Cosmetics-Hand lotions and creams, face powders, baby and bath powers, dentifrices, shampoo, lipstick, shaving preparations and hair dyes and creams, skin Course No. 416 – Industrial Pharmacy & Cosmetic Technology Practical
Formulation, preparation and quality control of pharmaceutical products covering dosage forms listed in theory. The number of products under each category is as follows. Tablets-6, Capsules-2, Sugar and Film coating one each, liquid orals-4, emulsions-2, parenterals-6, SR products-2, eye ointments-2, cosmetics-10. Suggested Books:
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1. Theory and Practice of Industrial Pharmacy by Leon Lachman, Lieberman and Kanning; 2. Text Book of Pharmaceutical Formulation by B.M. Mithal; 3. Bently’s Text Book of Pharmaceutics by E.A.Rawlins; 4. Science and technology of Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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Course No. 417 – Pharmaceutical Biotechnology
Introduction to fermentation: Anacrobic and aerobic fermentations, surface, submerged and solid state fermentations, fermentation media, maintenance of slant culture, design and working of an industrial fermenter; Fermentative production, recovery 1. antibiotics: Definition, classification, general methods of production and purification, various antibiotics used in medicine and nonmedical purposes. Manufacture of the following specific antibiotics: Penicillin G, cephalosporin C, streptomycin, tetracylins, chloromycetin, erythromycin and neomycin, 6-APA and preparation of semisynthetic penicillins like ampicillin, cloxacillin, 6-APA and semisynthetic cephalosporins: 2. Organic solvents: industrial alcohols; 3. Organic acids. Citric acid and lactic acid; 4. Vitamins: Riboflavin and vitamin B12; 5. Aminoacids: Glutamic acid and lysine; 6. L-Dopa, cyclic AMP. 1. Enzymes: Sources, classification, properties, general methods of preparation and purification. Applications in pharmaceutical industry, therapeutics and clinical analysis; 2. Immobilised enzymes, advantages and limitations of immobilization, a few methods of immobilization; 3. Microbial transformation of steroids: 1. Fundamentals of microbial genetics: Genetic organization of procaryotic and eucaryotic cells, recombination in bacteria (transformation, transduction and conjugation); 2. Mutation: Spontaneous and induced, different types of mutants, classification and mechanism of different types of mutagenic agents; 3. Strain improvement: Significance and different methods. 1. Fundamentals of genetic engineering: Introduction to gene manipulation: basic techniques, agarose-gel electrophoresis, southern blotting and northern blotting. Transformation of E. Coli and other organisms; 2. Cutting and joining DNA molecules: Cutting DNA and molecules: restriction endonucleases and their nomenclature, target Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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sites and mechanical sharing of DNA. Joining DNA molecules, DNA ligase, double linkers, adapters and homopolymer tailing; 3. Introduction into host cell: Transjection with recombinant phase DNA, transformation with recombinant plasmid DNA, in vitro DNA packaging into phage coat. Recombinant selection: Genetic, immunochemical, nucleic acid hybridization and recombinational methods. Expression of cloned genes. 4. Plasmids as cloning vehicles: Basic properties of plasmids, purification of plasmid DNA, desirable properties of plasmid cloning vehicles, natural and artificial plasmids-psc 101 Applications of genetic engineering: 1. Pharmaceuticals-production of human insulin, interferon, somatostatin, hepatitis vaccine and novel antibiotics. Production of small molecules like amino acids; 2. Recombinant DNA probes for diagnosis of genetic diseases; 3. Other products obtained through genetic engineering; 4. Protoplast fusion and its applications; 5. Production of strains that degrade xenobiotic compounds like DDT and TPAA; 6. Genetic engineering-patents, moral and ethical Suggested Books:
1. Industrial microbiology by Cassida LE, Jhon Willey and Sons, India; 2. Industrial microbiology by Prescott SC and Dunn CG, McGraw Hill Book company, 3rd and 4th Editions; 3. Industrial Fermentations by Under Koflar and Hickey, Vol. 1 and 2; 4. Biochemistry of Industrial Microorganisms by Rainbow and Rose; 5. Biotechnology by Kesav Trehan, Wiley Eastern; 6. Principles of gene manipulation Primrose SB and Old RW. Black Well Scientific Publications; 7. Nucleic acids and Biotechnoloty; H.D.Kumar, Vikas Publishing and Company. Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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IV B.PHARM – II SEMESTER
Course No. – Pharmaceutical Chemistry – VI (Natural Products)
1. Carbohydrates: Classification and general properties. A knowledge of structure including stereo chemistry of glucose, fructose and sucrose. General treatment of pharmaceutically important carbohydrates-maltose, lactose, starch, cellulose, dextrin and glycosides; 2. Amino acids and proteins: Classification and general reactions of amino acids and their relationship to proteins and polypeptides. Methods of preparation of amino acids, classification and general reactions of proteins, degradation of proteins- hydrolysis and end group analysis-protein, hormones, oxytocin. 3. Purines and xanthine derivatives: Structure and synthesis of uric acid, theobromine, theophylline and caffeine. acids, classification and general reactions of proteins, degradation of proteins-hydrolysis and end group analysis-protein, hormones, General aspects of nucleoproteins and nucleic acids; 4. Lipids: Fixed oils and fats. Fattyacids; chemistry and analysis of oils and fats; 5. Terpenes: Occurrence, general methods of isolation and classification, constitution of citral, limonene, a-terpeneiol, carvone, camphor and menthol. Preparation, general composition, properties and analysis 6. Alkaloids: Classification, general methods of isolation and structure determination of alkaloids. Constitution of ephedrine, nicotine, papaverine, atropine and quinine; 7. vitamins: Classificaiton, structure determination of thiamine, riboflavine and asecorbic acid. Skeleton structures of Vitamins official in I.P. 8. Steriods: Nomenclature and skeletal structure of ergosterol, stigmasterol, cholesterol and bile acids. Calciferols and Sapogenis- diosgenin, hecogenin; 9. Hormones: Sex hormones, structure and physiological properties of testosterone, progesterone, estrone, estriol and estradiol. Their synthesis from cholesterol or diosgenin. Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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Synthetic estrogens. Introductin to oral contraceptives. Cortisones; prednisolone, aldosterone, synthesis of cortisone. Steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs- structure and 10. Glycosides: Cardiac glycosides of digitalis and squill. Structure of salicin, hesperidin and rutin; 11. Antibiotics: A general study of antibiotics, isolation or syntheris, chemistry and uses of penicillin, chloramphenicol and streptomycin, general introduction to tetracyclines and other antibiotics included in I .P . ; 12. spectroscopy and structure: An introductory treatment of U.V., I.R. and N.M.R. spectroscopy in structure determination. Course No. 422 – Pharmaceutical Chemistry – VI (Natural Products) Practical
1. Determination of acid value; 2. Determination of saponification value; 3. Determination of iodine value; 4. Determination of unsaponifiable matter; 9. Determination of aminophylline; 10. Estimation of strychnine hydrochloride; 11. Testes for absence of arachis oil, cotton seed oil and sesame oil in other oils; 12. Reactions of carbohydrates, glycosides, alkaloids, amino acids (including xanthine alkaloids), sterols and vitamins; 13. Identification of selected natural products; 14. Preparation of caffeine from Tea dust; 15. Preparation of caseine and estimation of nitrogen; 16. Soxhelt extraction of a crude drug; 17. Assay of tincture Nuxvomica/ Suggested Books:
1. Organic chemistry Vol.I by I.L.Finar; 2. Wilson and Gisvold, Text Book of organic, Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry; 3. Bently and Driver’s Text Book of Pharmaceutical Chemistry; 4. Remington’s Practice of Pharmaceutical Sciences; 5. Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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Course No. 423 – Pharmacology – II
Study of the pharmacology of the following classes of drugs with emphasis on The uses, mode of action and structure activity relationships of oral contraceptives, sulphonomides, antineoplastics, antibiotics, antiamoebics and antiviral agents. 1. Chemotherapy: Sulphonomides, antineoplastics, antibiotics, antiviral and antifungal agents; 2. Drug treatment in tuberculosis, leprosy, venereal deseases, malaria, filarial, leishminiasis, trypnasomiasis, ameoebiasis and helmenthesis. 3. Vitamins and hormones: Vitamins, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal cortex, insulin and oral antidiabede drugs; 4. Pharmacology of sex organs: Oral Contraceptives, oxytocic 5. Immunity and biological standardization: Vaccines and immune sera, immunosuppressive agents; 6. Methods of biological assay, principles of bioassays, fundamentals of biometric analysis. Detailed study of the official bioassay methods for adrenaline; posterior pituitary, insulin, gonadotrophic hormones, cholera vaccine and diphtherial antitoxin. Tests for pyrogens. 7. Pharmacology of local anaesthetics; 8. Drugs acting on respiratory system: Cough suppressants, bronchodilators, drugs used in inflammatory bowl syndrome, antacids and drugs used in gastric ulcers. 7. Pharmacology of local anaesthetics; 8. Drugs acting on respiratory system: Cough suppressants, bronchodilators, drugs used in inflammatory bowl syndrome, antacids and drugs used in gastric ulcers. Text Books:
1. Text Book of Pharmacology by Rang and Dale; 2. Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics by Satoshkar and Bandarkar. Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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Reference Books:
1. Pharmacological basis of Therapeutics by Goodman and Gillman; 2. Indian Course No. 424 – Pharmacology – II Practical
List of Practical:
1,2 & 3. Action of drugs on isolated smooth muscle strips of Rat/ Rabbit/ 4. Drug antagonism studies on isolated smooth muscle strips (Acetylcholine x 5. Drug antagonism studies on isolated smooth muscle strips (Adrenaline x 6. Two-point bioassay of acetylcholine on frog rectus absominis muscle. 7. Three-point bioassay of acetylcholine on frog rectus abdominis muscle. 8. Bioassay of histamine on guineapig ileum. 9. Action of drugs on rabbits eye (local anaestheties). 11. Test for pyrogents ( rabbit method). 12. Insulin hypoglycaemic action in rabbits. Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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Course No. 425 – Pharmaceutical analysis – II
Physicochemical aspects of analytical chemistry with special reference to pharmaceutical analysis. 7. Pharmacology of local anaesthetics; 8. Drugs acting on respiratory system: Cough suppressants, bronchodilators, drugs used in inflammatory bowl syndrome, antacids and drugs used in gastric ulcers. Examination of substances from Indian Pharmacopoeia involving quantitative separation and estimations representing various analytical procedures ( instrumental Chromatographic methods-I : Principles and theories involved in adsorption and partition phenomena. (a) column chromatography-different methods and equipment used, practical considerations in selection of adsorbents, solvents and columns, quantitative and qualitative applications; (b) Paper chromatography – basic principles and techniques involved, solvent systems and paper used and detection methods, determination of Rf value, qualitative and quantitative applications; (c) thin layer chromatography and HPTLC - basic principles and techniques, materials and solvent systems, selection, preparation of plates, detection and recovery of components, qualitative, quantitative and preparative applications in pharmacy – comparison involving a study of the advantages and disadvantages of column, paper and thin layer chromatographic methods. Making permanent records of chromatograms; (d) lon-exchange and gel filtration techniques – basic principles – material used and techniques involved – pharmaceutical applications. Chromatographic methods-II (GC and HPLC): (a)Gas chromatography: Basic Principles, equipment, materials and techniques involved, injection systems, columns and detectors used, nomenclature including retention time, retention volume, retention index and HPTP and temperature programming, qualitative and quantitative applications in pharmacy, combination of GLC with other methods, advantages and disadvantages. (b) High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): Theoretical principles involved in HPLC, Pharmacology of local anaesthetics; 8. Drugs acting on respiratory system: Cough Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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suppressants, bronchodilators, drugs used in inflammatory bowl syndrome, antacids and Spectrophotometric analysis: A discussion of basic principles including interaction of matter with electro-magnetic radiation, absorption, emission, luminescence and scattering phenomena, units of measurement and definition of terms; (a) absorptiometry: quantitative consideration of absorption phenomenon including Beer and Lambert’s laws and their mathematical expression, deviations from the laws, typical equipment and methods used in absorption spectro- photometry (visible, UV and IR) including sources, monochromators, detectors, preparation of calibration curves, pharmaceutical applications including assay of official compounds and formulations used in the structure determination when more then one component is present. Source of errors in spectrophotometry and their correction, validation of spectrophotometric methods; Electrochemical analysis: A discussion of basic principles involved in electrochemical analysis, electrochemical cells and half-cells, electrodes, electrode reactions and electrode potentials: Electrochemical analysis: A discussion of basic principles involved in electrochemical analysis, electrochemical cells and half-cells, electrodes, electrode reactions and electrode potentials: (a) Potentiometry: Basic principles involved in measurement of EMF and pH, Nernest equation, typical equipment and their construction including reference and indicator electrodes, salt bridges, combination and specific electrodes, factors influencing EMF of a cell, portable, stationary and on-line equipment pH measurement, applications; (b) Potentiometric titrations including principles involved, methods for detection of end point including dead stop end point, applications in neutralization, redox and precipitation titrations, equipment used, exploration of titration curves obtained with acids and bases of different strengths and mixtures of acids; (c) Coductometric titrations: Basic principles, Ohm’s law, ionic conductivities, details of typical equipment including conductivity bridges and cells, procedures involved, determination of end point, high frequency titrations, pharmaceutical applications of Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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conductometry; Electrochemical analysis: A discussion of basic principles involved in electrochemical analysis, electrochemical cells and half-cells, electrodes, electrode reactions and electrode potentials: (d) Polarography: Basic principles and theory, Illkovic equation, production and analysis of a typical polarographic wave, organic polarography, typical instrumentation and methodology, DME and reference electrodes, modifications, recording of polarograms and their evaluations, derivative and differential polarography, applications in qualitative and quantitative analysis; (c) Amperometric titrations: Basic principles, titrations using DME, equipment and application. Basic principles, definition of terms, typical equipment and their working and applications in qualitative and quantitative analysis – NMR and Mass spectrometry, X- ray crystallography, thermal methods of analysis, radiochemical techniques, Text Books :
1. Practical Pharmaceutical Chemistry by A.H.Beckett and J.B.Stenlake (Althone Reference Books:
1. Pharmaceutical Chemistry by L.G.Chatten ( Marcel Dekker); 2. A text Book of Pharmaceutical Analysis of K.A.Connors (John Wiley); 3. Pharmaceutical Analysis – Modern Methods by J.W.Munson (Marcel Dekker); 4. Instrumental Methods of analysis By Willard, Merritt, Dean and Settle (CBS publishers). Course No. 426 – Pharmaceutical Analysis – II Practical
1. Separation of leaf pigments by column chromatography; 2. Separation and identification of flavonoids / sulphonamides by paper chromatography; 3. Separation and identification of amino acids / barbiturates / sugars by TLC methods; Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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8. Fluorimetric estimation of quinine sulphate / riboflavin in formulations; 9. Flame photometric estimation of sodium and potassium ions; 10. Potentiometric analysis: (a) solutions; (b) titration of strong acid against strong base; (c) Titration of strong base against weak acid; (d) Simulataneous determination of strong acid and weak acid in a mixture; (e) Potentiometric assay of any two formulations form I.P.; 11. Conductometric titration of NaOH with HCL; 12. Polarographic estimation of a drug official in I.P.; 13. Interpretation of given NMR and Mass spectra; 14. Determination of concentratin of sugar solutions by polarimetry; 15. Determination of critical micellar concentration (butyric acid in water) using Abbe Refractometer; 16. Demonstration experiments in detection of polymorphism and pseudopolymorphism in pharmaceuticals by DTA and DSC; 17. Assay of an ointment / cream official in I.P.; 18. Fluorimetric estimation of quinine sulphate / riboflavin in formulations; 9. Flame photometric estimation of sodium and potassium ions; 10. Potentiometric analysis: (a) Determination of pH of two Text Books:
1. Indian Pharmacopoeia; 2. Practical Pharmaceutical chemistry by A.H. Beckett Reference Books:
1. A Text Book of Pharmaceutical Analysis by K.A.Connors (Jhon Wiley). Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch
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Course No. 427 – Biopharmaceutics & Clinical Pharmacy
Biopharmaceutics: Introduction, fate of drug after administration, routes of drug administration, drug absorption and disposition. Drug absorption: Oral, percutaneous, rectal, factors involved, mechanisms and kinetics – a detailed study of physicochemical, biological and dosage from considerations in drug absorption. Drug dissolution and bioavailability: Concepts, definitions, factors involved, assessment, official methods, applications and significance. Drug distribution. Localisation and protein binding – enterohepatic cycling – first pass effect. Drug elimination: Metabolism, hepatic metabolism, microsomal and nonmicrosomal metabolism, enzyme and their influence on drug activity, drug excretion through urine, bile, lungs and skin-renal clearance. Significance of biopharmaceutics in product Clinical Pharmacy; Introduction, objectives and scope of clinical pharmacy practice – modern dispensing aspects, patient counseling and advice – medication history – drug monitoring. Drug therapy in pediatrics and geriatrics. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions: Drug interactions at absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) pathways. Pharmacodynamic drug interactions in Effective up to 2007-2008 Batch

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