Si está buscando comprar medicamentos en línea en España, es importante elegir una farmacia en línea de confianza y segura para garantizar que los medicamentos que reciba sean auténticos y de alta calidad. En comprar-farmacia.es, ofrecemos una amplia selección de medicamentos, incluido Cialis para la disfunción eréctil (DE), y trabajamos con farmacias acreditadas para garantizar la calidad y la autenticidad de nuestros productos.
Visite nuestro sitio web en comprar-farmacia.es para obtener más información sobre nuestros productos y servicios. Nuestro equipo de atención al cliente está disponible para ayudarlo en todo momento y garantizar una experiencia de compra en línea segura y satisfactoria.
Users.ecs.soton.ac.uk
For reprint orders, please contact:[email protected]
Effects of dopamine D2 receptor gene polymorphisms on smoking cessation: abstinence and withdrawal symptoms
Marcus R Munafò & Evaluation of: Robinson JD, Lam CY, Minnix JA et al.: The DRD2 TaqI-B Elaine C Johnstone polymorphism and its relationship to smoking abstinence and withdrawal symptoms. Pharmacogenomics J. (2006) (Epub ahead of print). An increasing 1University of Bristol, Department of Experimental
number of studies have investigated the role of genetic factors in smoking cessation, and
in response to smoking cessation pharmacotherapy. Robinson and colleagues report data
on the effects of the dopamine D2 receptor gene Taq1B polymorphism on smoking
Tel.: +44 117 954 6841;Fax: +44 117 928 8588;
cessation and withdrawal. While the results add to the growing literature on smoking
cessation pharmacogenetics, they also illustrate that minor differences in phenotype
definition may influence the results of pharmacogenetic analyses. Existing studies also lack
2University of Oxford, Department of Clinical
direct comparability, which makes it difficult to judge evidence for replication. Several
future directions for smoking cessation pharmacogenetics research are discussed. Infirmary, Oxford OX2 6HA, UKTel.: +44 186 522 4338;
The pharmacogenetic analysis reported by Rob-
allele responding to the drug with a substantial
inson and colleagues [1] of clinical trial data from
reduction in negative affect, whereas those carry-
a Phase II placebo-controlled trial of venlafaxine
ing the A1 allele (A1/A1 and A1/A2) showed no
for smoking cessation, given in conjunction with
significant reduction in negative mood [6].
behavioral support and nicotine replacement
Participants were smokers recruited for a
transdermal patch, adds to the small but rapidly
double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of
growing literature on the pharmacogenetics of
the antidepressant venlafaxine for smoking
smoking cessation. Cigarette smoking is the larg-
cessation [7] who were subsequently genotyped
est preventable cause of death and morbidity in
for the DRD2 Taq1A and Taq1B polymorphisms
the USA, Europe and the developed world [2], but
to investigate possible pharmacogenetic effects.
despite decades of research to develop effective
Participants were required to smoke at least ten
smoking cessation treatments, a large proportion
cigarettes per day at baseline, and be aged
of smokers who attempt to quit are doomed to
between 18 and 75 years. Both the Taq1A1 and
fail [3]. Therefore, the public health impact of cig-
Taq1B1 polymorphisms have been reported to
arette smoking remains substantial, which means
be associated with a decrease in D2 dopamine
that any improvement in the currently modest
receptor density in the striatum [8,9] (i.e., reduced
success rates achieved by smokers attempting to
function), although there are conflicting
quit would have the potential to afford a consid-
results [10]. It would be interesting to know
erable improvement in public health. This has
whether these markers are in linkage disequilib-
prompted a growing interest in pharmacogenetics
rium in this study, as has been reported else-
research to determine whether the efficacy of dif-
where [11], in particular given the different results
ferent pharmacotherapies for the treatment of
for these markers reported by Robinson and
nicotine dependence is influenced by inherited
variation in drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug
Participants recorded their daily cigarette
intake each night in a diary prior to going to bed
The findings reported by Robinson and col-
for 56 consecutive days (14 days prequit and
leagues extend on this work by investigating var-
42 days postquit), recording cigarette use over
iation in a relatively rarely investigated
the past 24 h, counting even a single puff as a
cigarette. Daily abstinence was calculated based
Keywords: dopamine, DRD2,
(DRD2) gene, the Taq1B variant, as well as the
on this smoking diary, with zero cigarettes
more commonly studied Taq1A variant. This
defined as abstinent and all other responses,
follows a previous report by the same group on
including missing, defined as nonabstinent.
the same sample indicating a DRD2 Taq1A gen-
Withdrawal symptoms were measured using two
otype × treatment interaction effect on negative
standardized, validated instruments – the Wis-
affect, with smokers homozygous for the A2
10.2217/14622416.8.5.513 2007 Future Medicine Ltd ISSN 1462-2416
Pharmacogenomics (2007) 8(5), 513–517
PRIORITY PAPER EVALUATION – Munafò & Johnstone
which consists of seven subscales (anger, anxiety,
among studies of genetic and pharmacogenetic
concentration, craving, hunger, sadness and
effects on smoking cessation, where very few of
sleep) and the Minnesota Withdrawal Symptom
those studies published to date have been explicitly
Checklist (MWSC), which is a nine-item list of
designed to investigate these effects.
tobacco withdrawal symptoms summed to gen-erate an overall withdrawal scale. Both question-
naires were completed on a daily basis for
The study by Robinson and colleagues adds to the
56 days, along with the smoking diary.
growing but disparate literature on the role of
Although the original trial from which these
genetic effects on smoking cessation. Case–con-
data were drawn randomized participants, strati-
trol studies of smoking status phenotypes (e.g.,
fied by sex and history of depression, to receive
comparing current smokers with ex-smokers)
either venlafaxine or placebo, no DRD2
have generally reported an increased likelihood of
genotype × treatment interactions effects were
being a smoker among those carrying one or more
copies of the reduced function Taq1A or Taq1B
colleagues for either the A1 or A2 variants.
variants. Nevertheless, these findings have by no
Instead, the results of interest relate to main
means been consistent, and findings across studies
effects of genotype on short-term daily absti-
remain highly heterogeneous, with the overall evi-
nence and withdrawal symptoms. Despite the
dence for association remaining modest [12].
authors predicting that the reduced function
Pharmacogenetic phenotypes have been argued to
offer advantages in the study of smoking cessation
decreased daily abstinence rates and increased
treatment compared with traditional case–control
withdrawal symptoms, no effects of this poly-
phenotypes, such as greater refinement (e.g., pro-
morphism were observed on either short-term
spectively assessed abstinence symptoms, side-
effects and smoking cessation under different
However, the reduced function Taq1B1 vari-
treatment conditions) and the use of experimental
ant was observed to be associated with signifi-
designs that control the dosing and timing of ther-
cantly reduced daily abstinence as the study
apy [4,5]. The use of daily diary data by Robinson
and colleagues illustrates well the potential
genotype × time interaction effect (p < 0.05).
strength of using rich time-course data to specify
homozygous for the Taq1B2 allele were absti-
nent, compared with 60% of those carrying one
findings to date. For example, reduced function
or more copies of the Taq1B1 allele. By 25 days
alleles (i.e., those associated with, for example,
post quit this difference had increased, with
reduced mRNA expression) for polymorphisms
approximately 40% of smokers homozygous for
in the DRD2 gene (e.g., Taq1A1) have generally
the Taq1B2 allele remaining abstinent, com-
been shown to predict better response to nico-
pared with less than 20% of those carrying one
tine replacement therapy (NRT) [13–15], while
or more copies of the Taq1B1 allele.
increased function alleles (e.g., Taq1A2) have
In addition, significant DRD2 Taq1B × time
been reported to predict better response to
interaction effects were observed for several
bupropion [14,16,17]. However, this overall picture
WSWS scales, including anger (p < 0.02), anxi-
is complicated by evidence that the widely inves-
ety (p < 0.004), concentration (p < 0.05), sadness
tigated DRD2 Taq1A polymorphism alters an
(p < 0.05) and sleep (p < 0.02). A similar interac-
amino acid in a previously undescribed protein
tion effect was observed for the MWSC summary
kinase gene (ANKK1) near the DRD2 locus [18].
score (p < 0.003). In all cases, participants with
Nevertheless, this does not rule out an associa-
the B2B2 genotype reported fewer withdrawal
tion with the DRD2 gene, since data from the
symptoms over time compared with participants
HapMap project reveal that the Taq1A variant is
with one or more copies of the B1 allele.
in linkage disequilibrium with other variants in
These findings suggest, albeit tentatively given
the DRD2 gene, but not with variants in the
the marginal statistical significance of some of the
ANKK1 gene [101]. Nevertheless, there have also
findings and the large number of statistical tests,
been failures to demonstrate an effect of DRD2
that smokers may exhibit distinct withdrawal tra-
jectories on the basis of DRD2 genotype.
Another difficulty is that differences in study
Although the results are based on a subgroup anal-
design, and in the specific variants examined, limit
ysis of genetic effects, this is not uncommon
the comparability of the existing trials. With the
Pharmacogenomics (2007) 8(5)
Effects of DRD2 polymorphisms on smoking cessation – PRIORITY PAPER EVALUATION
exception of the two randomized controlled trials
necessary, implementing genome-wide analyses
of bupropion versus placebo [14,16,20,21], these stud-
rather than focusing on single or a small number
ies are not directly comparable, comprising both
of variants [23]. Those studies that focus on a sin-
randomized controlled trials and open-label effec-
gle gene should investigate multiple functional
tiveness trials. In particular, it is difficult to com-
variants to maximally capture variation across
pare genotype × treatment interaction effects
the gene, and, ideally, single-gene studies should
observed in placebo-controlled trials of single med-
be supplanted by large-scale studies of multiple
ications (e.g., NRT only), with main effects of
genes operating within a single pathway (e.g.,
genotype observed in trials where participants are
multiple dopamine receptor subtype genes, as
offered combination pharmacotherapy (e.g., venla-
well as genes coding for the dopamine trans-
faxine plus NRT). Moreover, as mentioned previ-
porter and those coding for dopamine metabo-
ously, most of these studies were not explicitly
lizing enzymes such as dopamine β-hydroxylase
designed to address pharmacogenetic questions.
and catechol-O-methyl transferase, in the case of
The results of the study by Robinson and col-
the dopamine pathway). Clearly this will require
leagues, while interesting, add yet another study
studies at least an order of magnitude larger than
design to those already employed in pharmaco-
those currently available to achieve sufficient
genetic studies of smoking cessation. It is notable
that in a previous analysis of the same data by the
same group, a significant effect of DRD2 Taq1A
medications approved for other indications (e.g.,
genotype on smoking cessation was observed
rimonabant), as well as current second-line medi-
when assessing abstinence at regular intervals up
cations for smoking cessation (e.g., nortriptyl-
to 52 weeks post quit [6], as opposed to daily diary
ine), will also require investigation, both in the
assessment as in the current study. This highlights
context of placebo-controlled trials and effective-
that relatively subtle differences in study design,
ness trials comparing multiple active medica-
such as the operational definition of abstinence
tions. It is possible, for example, that the
employed, may afford quite different results.
apparent lack of efficacy of certain medicationsmay mask the existence of subgroups of individu-
als for whom these medications may be effective,
The study of genetic and phamacogenetic effects
and who may be identifiable on the basis of geno-
on smoking cessation remains in its infancy, but
type. In the case of the current study, as the
the number of studies in this field is increasing
authors themselves note, candidate genes related
rapidly. As in all genetic association studies, robust
to serotonin neurotransmission may have been
replication is the ultimate goal of these studies.
Therefore, future studies should strive for compa-
genotype × treatment interaction effects, given
rability with existing studies in order for the
the mechanism of action of venlafaxine on serot-
extent to which early findings are replicated to be
onin reuptake. Retrospective genotyping of clini-
adequately assessed. The cost and complexity of
cal trial data will allow this possibility to be
trials of smoking cessation pharmacotherapies,
investigated, although any promising findings
which typically offer treatment in combination
will require confirmation in larger, explicitly
with behavioral support and, as in the case of the
study by Robinson and colleagues, in combina-
Genetic associations with tolerability and side-
tion with other pharmacotherapies, presents an
effects should also be examined, as well as with
obstacle to this. While meta-analysis has afforded
withdrawal symptoms, as Robinson and col-
an (imperfect) solution to the perennial problem
leagues have done, given that there may exist fur-
of lack of statistical power in case–control genetic
ther subgroups of individuals who respond well
association studies [22], where comparability across
to certain medications that are typically not well
studies tends to be greater than in pharmaco-
tolerated, without the frequently concomitant
genetic studies, it is not clear that this will offer a
side-effect profiles associated with these medica-
viable solution when the heterogeneity between
tions. For example, an association between varia-
tion in the DRD2 gene and poor adherence to
As well as improving comparability across
bupropion medication due to side-effects has
studies, if we are to accurately and reliably iden-
been reported [17], which illustrates the potential
tify genetic variants associated with treatment
to predict likely tolerance on the basis of geno-
response, very large studies explicitly designed to
type, even in the case of pharmacotherapies that
PRIORITY PAPER EVALUATION – Munafò & Johnstone
well as offer the potential to translate these find-
emerge, our knowledge regarding the role of
ings into practice and offer individualized treat-
genetic variation in smoking cessation and
ment tailored on the basis of genotype. Only
response to smoking cessation pharmacotherapy
then will we know whether studies such as that
will increase substantially. This will provide
by Robinson and colleagues will fulfil their
important insights into the mechanisms of
promise of allowing genotype-specific treatment
nicotine addiction and smoking cessation, as
Executive summary Study design
• A pharmacogenetic analysis of a Phase II randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial of the antidepressant
venlafaxine, given in conjunction with behavioral support and nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation, was performed. A total of 166 smokers were recruited, of which 147 were randomized and 128 followed-up to 12 months post cessation. Comparison groups
• All participants were genotyped for the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) Taq1A and Taq1B polymorphisms, with one or more copies
of the reduced activity (‘at risk’) allele (A1A1 or A1A2, and B1B1 or B1B2, respectively) compared with those homozygous for the wild-type allele (A2A2 and B2B2, respectively). Eligibility
• Participants were required to smoke at least ten cigarettes per day at baseline, and be aged between 18 and 75 years old.
Individuals were excluded if they were participating in other smoking cessation treatments or taking psychoactive medication, or had uncontrolled systemic illness, contraindications for venlafaxine or nicotine patches, current substance abuse or other psychiatric disorders. End points
• The end points for the study were daily abstinence up to 42 days post quit, based on smoking diaries completed by participants
and verified by expired air carbon monoxide (≤10 ppm) at 1, 3 and 6 weeks post quit. Withdrawal symptoms were measured by the Wisconsin Smoking Withdrawal Scale and the Minnesota Withdrawal Symptom Checklist questionnaires. Results
• Smokers with an ‘at-risk’ B1 (B1B1 or B1B2) genotype were found to be less likely to report abstinence over the course of the
6-week post quit period as time progressed.
• Smokers with an ‘at-risk’ B1 (B1B1 or B1B2) genotype were found to be likely to report more withdrawal symptoms as
• No significant DRD2 Taq1B genotype × treatment (venlafaxfine vs placebo) interactions, and no effects of DRD2 Taq1A genotype,
Conclusion
• Smokers carrying the DRD2 Taq1-B1 allele were less likely to abstain from smoking, and reported significantly more symptoms of
daily smoking withdrawal over time compared with smokers homozygous for the B2 allele. These findings may have implications for the development of genotype-specific treatment strategies.
Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I:
Comprehensive review of
Papers of special note have been highlighted as
Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years’
pharmacogenetics of nicotine addiction
either of interest (•) or of considerable interest (••)
treatment, including a discussion of the Br. Med. J. 328, 1519 (2004). social and ethical implications of tailoring
Robinson JD, Lam CY, Minnix JA et al.:
Hughes JR: Motivating and helping smokers
treatment on the basis of genotype.
The DRD2 TaqI-B polymorphism and its
to stop smoking. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 18,
Cinciripini P, Wetter D, Tomlinson G et al.:
The effects of the DRD2 polymorphism on
withdrawal symptoms. Pharmacogenomics J.
evidence for a pharmacogenetic effect on
Illustration of the potential of
mood. Nicotine Tob. Res. 6, 229–239
pharmacogenetics to offer insight into Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther. 7, 202–208 (2005). individual differences in smoking cessation
Cinciripini PM, Tsoh JY, Wetter DW et al.:
trajectory (e.g., abstinence and withdrawal
Combined effects of venlafaxine, nicotine
symptoms) among abstinent smokers. Pharmacogenomics 6, 211–223 (2005). Pharmacogenomics (2007) 8(5)
Effects of DRD2 polymorphisms on smoking cessation – PRIORITY PAPER EVALUATION
and short-term effectiveness of the nicotine
Berlin I, Covey LS, Jiang H, Hamer D: Lack
Psychopharmacol. 13, 282–292 (2005).
patch. Pharmacogenetics 14, 83–90 (2004).
of effect of D2 dopamine receptor TaqI A
Lerman C, Jepson C, Wileyto EP et al.: Role
et al.: Polymorphisms in the dopamine D2
Nicotine Tob. Res. 7, 725–728 (2005).
receptor gene and their relationships to
dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) in response
Berrettini WH, Wileyto EP, Epstein L et al.:
striatal dopamine receptor density of healthy
Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT)
volunteers. Mol. Psychiatry 4, 290–296
therapy for tobacco dependence: results of
gene variants predict response to bupropion
therapy for tobacco dependence. Biol. Neuropsychopharmacology 31, 231–242
Psychiatry 61(1), 111–118 (2007).
Lerman C, Shields PG, Wileyto EP et al.:
Yudkin P, Munafò M, Hey K et al.:
gene with receptor-binding characteristics in
Effectiveness of nicotine patches in relation
alcoholism. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 48,
cessation in a bupropion clinical trial. Health
randomised controlled trial. Br. Med. J. 328,
Psychol. 22, 541–548 (2003).
receptors binding potential is not affected by
genetic association studies. Trends Genet. 20,
et al.: Pharmacogenetic clinical trial of
gene. Mol. Psychiatry 3, 261–265 (1998).
Liu QR, Drgon T, Walther D et al.: Pooled
Ritchie T, Noble EP: Association of seven
cessation. Nicotine Tob. Res. (In Press)
association genome scanning: validation and
use to identify addiction vulnerability loci in
receptor gene with brain receptor-binding
Swan GE, Valdes AM, Ring HZ et al.:
two samples. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 102,
characteristics. Neurochem. Res. 28, 73–82
Dopamine receptor DRD2 genotype and
Murphy M, Walton R: The genetic basis for
Pharmacogenomics J. 5, 21–29 (2005). Pharmacogenomics 7, 1137–1140 (2006).
smoking behavior: a systematic review and
meta-analysis. Nicotine Tob. Res. 6, 583–597
ANKK1: a novel kinase gene closely linked
Johnstone EC, Yudkin PL, Hey K et al.:
to DRD2 on chromosome band 11q23.1.
Genetic variation in dopaminergic pathways
Hum. Mutat. 23, 540–545 (2004).
Vorbeugen Gelenkbeschwerden Durch regelmässige, schonende Bewegung wie Rad-Mit Arnika, Wallwurz, Hagebutte, Glucosamin und fahren, Spazierengehen, Walking, Schwimmen. Wechseljahre Jede/-r über 50 soll für sich im stillen Kämmerchen Diverse Präparate auf Traubensilberkerzenbasis für Bilanz ziehen und sich die Frage ganz persönlich be-die Frau bewähren sich. Die Sägepalme lin
Vance L. Albaugh, MD, PhD Phone: (717) 629-1233, Email: [email protected], Fax: (615) 322-0689 EDUCATION Surgical Residency Training Vanderbilt University Medical Center; Nashville, Tennessee Medical/Graduate Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine; Hershey, Pennsylvania USMLE Step 1: 243 (99), July 2007 USMLE Step 2 CK: 255 (99), August 2010 USMLE Step